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Click the links to go straight to more information on these macro minerals:
Bromine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Fluorine
Iodine
Iron
Manganese
Molybdenum
Selenium
Silicon
Zinc
It is not clear that the body actually requires bromine, chemical symbol Br, though we ingest around 1.5 - 2.5 mg per day. Bromide salts have been used medicinally since the 19th century, and they were once the main treatment for epilepsy, as they have a depressant effect on the central nervous system. Now they have largely been overtaken by more modern anticonvulsants. Long term use can cause dullness, sleepiness, weakness and slurring of the speech.
Chromium, chemical symbol Cr, is a metallic element which is required for healthy body function. It is absorbed through the intestines, and after a period in the blood, it is transferred to cells in the liver, spleen and bone marrow. Absorption of chromium is inhibited by iron, zinc, manganese, titanium and calcium. The great majority of any excess is excreted in the urine.
Chromium exists in two forms - organic and inorganic. The body can absorb about a quarter of the organic chromium ingested, but only 0.5% of the inorganic version.
Deficiency
Since the functions of chromium are not entirely understood yet, there is also a degree of uncertainty about the results of a deficiency. It is believed that deficiency could lead to confusion, weakness, irritability and depression. There is also some interesting evidence to suggest that it may contribute to arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), since post mortem examinations have shown people with the condition having very low levels of chromium.
Animal studies have shown a link between low levels of chromium and a range of health problems, from eye damage and lowered fertility, to reduced protein production and glucose intolerance. Some doctors believe that chromium can prevent hypoglycaemia, or low blood sugar levels, but there is not yet sufficient reliable research to support or refute this theory unequivocally.
Benefits
There is still work to be done on identifying the roles played by chromium in the body, but it seems to play a part in regulating the immune system, assisting in the proper functioning of the skeletal muscles and the efficient storage and metabolism of fats and sugars.
Sources
Chromium is found in meat and cheese, unrefined and wholemeal flour and cereals, brewer's yeast, nuts, liver, fresh fruits and herbs.
RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance)
There is no RDA figure, but the American FDA suggests that a daily intake of between 50 and 200 micrograms is both safe and sufficient.
Cobalt, chemical symbol Co, forms part of the vitamin B12 molecule (cyanocobalamin). It is absorbed into the body through the small intestines. There is generally 1mg of cobalt contained in the body, distributed in the muscles and bones.
Deficiency
Deficiency of cobalt would also mean vitamin B12 deficiency, leading to muscle weakness, nerve and bowel problems and pernicious anaemia.
Overdose
The body can tolerate fairly large quantities of cobalt, but a daily intake of over 20 - 30 mg can lead to failure of the thyroid gland and weakening of the heart.
Benefits
Cobalt's essential role is as a component of the B12 vitamin. It also seems to trigger production of a glycoprotein hormone, erythropoietin, when the body is short of oxygen - but this process is not yet properly understood.
Sources
Cobalt is found in meat, eggs, milk, green vegetables, buckweat and figs.
RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance)
There is no set RDA for cobalt.
Copper, chemical symbol Cu, is absorbed through the stomach and the small intestine, and plays many roles in the funtioning of the body. There is generally about 80mg present in the body, and when there are sufficient reserves, the rate of absorption drops by up to 90%, and excess copper is excreted in the faeces.
Copper absorption is adversely affected by the presence of fibre and protein in the intestine, and also by various minerals, particularly zinc, with which it competes to form compounds with proteins.
Deficiency
Lack of copper is rare, but can be serious. It may be caused by problems in the liver or bile duct, leading to poor absorption of food. The symptoms include changes in the hair, both colour and texture, loss of hair, anaemia, diarrhoea, low white blood cell count, problems with the central nervous system and bone diseases. Copper deficiency can lead to a greater risk of heart disease and circulation problems, particularly if selenium deficiency occurs at the same time.
Elevated copper levels
The amount of copper in the blood rises when there is an infection somewhere in the body, because one of its functions is to form an antioxidant protein called ceruloplasmin, which is produced in greater quantities when there is an infection or inflammation to fight. Many malignant tumours also lead to elevated blood copper levels, with successful treatment of the cancer then causing the levels to return to normal.
Benefits
As mentioned, copper has a role to play in destroying dangerous oxygen-free radicals. It is also involved in the regulation of several hormones, including adrenaline and serotonin. It is found in many enzymes, which are critical to production of energy in the cells, food metabolism, the disarming of free radicals and production of red blood cells.
Sources
Copper comes from shellfish, particularly oysters, liver, kidney, cocoa, tap water, brazil nuts, raisins, peas and brewer's yeast.
RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance)
The RDA is between 2 and 5 mg per day.
In its elemental form, fluorine (chemical symbol F) is a gas. The body uses it in the form of fluoride salts, which are quickly and easily absorbed - though absorption is reduced by calcium, aluminium and sodium chloride.
Deficiency
Extremely uncommon in humans, fluoride deficiency in animals can stunt the growth, cause hair loss and disorders in the development of the teeth.
Overdose
The evidence about the role of fluoride in the body is somewhat ambiguous, but over-consumption leads to fluorosis, where the teeth become mottled and discoloured, and it may also lead to an increase in bone mass and calcification of the ligaments. It has been implicated in the development and exacerbation of arthritis.
Benefits
Fluoride is taken into the enamel of the teeth, making it harder and more resistant to decay. It has its most important effect when the teeth are forming, even before they emerge from the gums. Because of this benefit to teeth, many toothpastes contain fluoride, and in some countries, the water supply has fluoride added, to ensure that all children receive an adequate supply.
However, fluoride is a toxin, and its levels in the bones increase with age. Although it increases bone mass, the new tissue it produces is not like normal bone. Some studies have suggested that increased fluoride consumption, far from strengthening bones, might actually make them more susceptible to breaking.
Sources
Fluoride comes from toothpaste and other dental products to which it has been added, fluoridated drinking water, tea, cereals, meat and fish, particularly oily ones such as herring, mackerel and sardine.
RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance)
The American RDA is between 1 and 4 mg.
Like fluorine, iodine, chemical symbol I, is a gas in its basic form but is used by the body in the form of iodide salts. The body's requirement is very small, but iodine is critical to production of many hormones, and proper growth and development. Nearly 80% of the iodine in the body is contained in the thyroid gland, and this is where a third of the iodine we eat is sent as soon as it is absorbed. The remainder is excreted in the urine - though it still seems to have an effect on the body as it moves towards elimination.
Deficiency
A shortage of iodine causes the metabolic rate to drop, and this in turn leads to tiredness, lethargy and weight gain. It also causes goitre, a disease which involves swelling of the neck, as the thyroid gland is enlarged. Deficiency of the mineral in pregnance and early infancy can mental retardation and stunted growth in the child. Up to the middle of last century, iodine deficiency was quite common in Europe. At that time, it was added to table salt, and the problem solved; although it still occurs in some parts of Asia, South America and Africa.
Benefits
Iodine is essential for producing the thyroid hormones which are responsible for a range of processes, including regulation of the catabolism (breaking down) of fats, proteins and carbohydrates; increasing of the metabolic rate; development of the central nervous system; maintenance of the heart rate; secretion of growth hormones; and synthesis of many enzymes.
Iodine is used in tablet form to treat people who have been exposed to radioactive radiation, and is used to treat some cancers. In liquid form, it is also used as a skin disinfectant.
Sources
Widely available in iodized table salt, the mineral also accurs in seafood, seaweed, meat, fruit and vegetables raised in areas with iodine in the soil.
RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance)
The average adult needs between 100 and 200 micrograms per day.
Metallic element, chemical symbol Fe, which is essential for many processes in the body. The 4g of iron which an average human body contains is distributed between the haemoglobin in the red blood cells (two-thirds), 10% in muscle cells, and the balance distributed amongst the liver, kidneys, spleen, bone marrow and other organs. Iron is available to us in three different forms: haem iron in meat; non-haem iron in vegetables; and non-haem iron as a food additive. None of them are easy for the body to absorb - 5% absorption of dietary iron is about average. The absorption of non-heam iron is inhibited by calcium, but enhanced by vitamin C.
Deficiency
Iron deficiency is generally a consequence of a diet that is too little varied, poor eating habits, lack of vitamin C, and may be a result of a vegetarian diet. It causes anaemia, which is the most common deficiency condition in the western world. Anaemia is characterised by tiredness, weakness, loss of strength, pale skin, nervousness, fainting and palpitations. Deficiency also undermines the white blood cells' immubne system, leaving the body more susceptible to infections.
Overdose
Too much iron can cause various conditions, including diabetes and liver failure when too much of the mineral is stored in the liver, spleen and endocrine glands. The heart and other organs are also susceptible to damage from too much iron, and it can cause increased susceptibiity to infectious diseases.
Benefits
Iron is an essential ingredient of haemoglobin in the blood, which carries oxygen around the body, and carbon dioxide to the lungs for elimination. Iron is also in myoglobin in the muscles, where it functions to produce oxygen at times of oxygen deficiency. It is essential to the proper functioning of many enzymes, and the production of energy at cellular level. The B vitamins cannot be metabolised without iron.
Sources
Iron is found particularly in meat; liver; offal; blood; eggs; vegetables such as peas, parsley, green leafy vegetables; pulses; nuts (almonds, particularly); apricots; figs; cocoa; whole grains; and fortified flour and cereals.
RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance)
The RDA for adults is 14 - 18mg, while pregnant women require 30 - 60mg.
An antioxidant metal, chemical symbol Mn, which is essential for many processes in the body. It is stored mainly in the pigmented cells of the skin, hair and eye retina. Absorption of dietary manganese is very low - only about 3% - and it is lost in the urine; the loss being increased by alcohol intake.
Deficiency
Deficiency is very unusual, but can cause bone deformities, impaired growth, changes in the skin and emaciation. it has been suggested that it could also be a factor in epilepsy and diabetes, but this has not been adequately proven.
Overdose
Overdose of manganese can cause brain damage and Parkinson's-like symptoms. Sometimes miners who have inhaled manganese oxide while working in unventilated mine shafts, have shown these symptoms.
Benefits
Manganese plays a part in the development of strong bones, nerves and muscles. It is vital in controlling growth rates, ensuring the proper function of many enzymes and metabolising carbohydrates and ats. Manganese is important for fertility.
Some alternative therapists use manganese supplments to help with painful joint and bone disorders, and to fight cancer. It should only be used with great care as a supplement, after a blood test to check the body's levels of the mineral.
Sources
Whole grain cereals, nuts, tea, pulses, avocados and vegetables are all sources of manganese.
RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance)
The RDA is 2.5 - 3.8mg: most people ingest between 5 and 6mg.
Although described as an essential trace element, we really know very little about molybdenum, chemical symbol Mo, except that it forms part of at least three enzymes. It is distributed throughout the body, with the greatest concentration in the liver.
Deficiency
There is conflicting evidence about the importance of this element, but some studies suggest that a shortage could lead to more tooth decay, male impotence, irregular heartbeat and even coma, in extreme cases.
Overdose
Excess molybdenum is excreted in the faeces and urine, and there is no evidence of adverse results of high intake: levels vary in foodstuffs depending on the amount of the mineral in the soil where they were grown, which varies greatly. In parts of Russia, for example, the average daily intake is 100 times greater than the average in other areas of the world.
Benefits
Its work includes contributing to the enzymes which neutralise toxic compounds of sulphur in the body; assisting in the production of haemoglobin; and preventing dental caries. It may also help to eliminate or neutralise carcinogenic nitrogen compounds, and may play a role in male sexual function.
Sources
Molybdenum is found in oats, buckwheat, barley, pulses, leguminous fruits and liver.
RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance)
The RDA varies between 100 and 500 micrograms.
Selenium, chemical symbol Se, is an element that is essential for the normal functioning of the immune system and the thyroid gland. It forms part of the antioxidant enzymes that protect against the damaging effects of free radicals. It occurs in an organic form in foodstuffs, and in both organic and inorganic forms in food supplements. The organic form is absorbed much more efficiently by the body.
Deficiency
Selenium deficiency is most likely in those parts of the world where levels of the mineral are very low in the soil - the first such area where the deficiency condition was observed being Keshan province in China. Keshan disease results in the heart becoming enlarged and functioning less efficiently. It can be fatal if not treated with selenium supplements. Studies have also shown students to be at risk of deficiency, because of the increased likelihood of eating a poor, unbalanced diet.
Apart from heart problems, a shortage of selenium may also impair the functioning of the thyroid gland and exacerbate the effects of iodine deficiency.
Overdose
Too much selenium is definitely toxic. Symptoms of the overdose condition, selenosis, include stomach upsets, white patches on the nails, hair loss and slight nerve damage.
Benefits
There is a proven link in humans between low levels of selenium and increased likelihood of developing cancer: this is increased still further if there is also a shortage of other antioxidant vitamins and minerals, such as vitamins A and E, copper, zinc and manganese. Selenium helps fight off cancer not only through its anti free-radical action, but also by halting the division of cancer cells and the reproduction of cancer viruses, and by reducing the ability of carcinogenic chemicals to cause changes in the genetic material of cells.
There is a suggestion that the likelihood of contracting heart disease is also reduced by ensuring good levels of selenium, and research is ongoing into its possible role in preventing and treating degenerative diseases of the muscles, such as muscular dystrophy. HIV/AIDs researchers have discovered that sufferers with low levels of selenium are likely to die younger: the mineral's antioxidant and immunological actions may slow the progress of the disease.
Selenium's antioxidant effect may be beneficial in reducing the build-up of lipid peroxides rancid fats) which are implicated in a range of conditions, from multiple sclerosis to diabetes and arthritis. There is a lot of research currently underway, to try and understand how selenium interacts with other vitamins and minerals, and how we can best harness its positive actions.
Sources
The selenium content of foods depends on the levels of the mineral in the soils on which they were grown. Some of the richest sources include brazil nuts; seafood and fish; unrefined foods, such as wholegrain flour and cereals; egg yolk; liver; kidney; garlic; and brewer's yeast.
RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance)
There isn't yet an RDA for selenium. However an intake of between 50 and 200 micrograms is regarded as sufficient. 70 micrograms for men and 50 micrograms for woman are the levels at which the body's selenium balance is considered to be maintained - but these do not address the disease-prevention potential of selenium.
Silicon, chemical symbol Si, has similar chemical properties to carbon, and has only quite recently been identified as essential to the human body, so little is yet known about how it functions. Much of what we eat is excreted in the urine; what is retained is carried in the blood to the muscles, bones, nails, ligaments, cartilage, brain and, particularly, the lymph glands.
Deficiency
There is no known deficiency condition.
Benefits
Silicon seems to be the starting point for the building of bone and connective tissue. It helps to build the proteins collagen and elastin, which make the connective tissues resilient. Supplements of silicon with boron help people with replacement hip joints to grow new bone mass around the joint, holding it more firmly in position. It is hoped that the mineral may prove valuable in preventing and treating osteoporosis - but work still needs to be done on understanding how it interacts with calcium, magnesium and boron.
It seems to help with strengthening nails, hair and skin, and is sometimes used by alternative therapists as a treatment for atopic eczema.
RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance)
There is no RDA for silicon. The average human body contains about 7g - rather more than iron or copper - from which it is inferred that a daily intake of 20 - 30mg is required.
Zinc, chemical symbol Zn, is a metallic element that is involved in many different body processes, and controls the functioning of many enzymes. Nearly 80% of the zinc in our bodies is stored in the bones, muscles and skin, from where it is released if there is a shortage in the diet - which is often the case.
Deficiency
Skin problems occur quickly if the body is short of zinc, as this is where stores of the mineral are first taken from. It is implicated in everything from general fatigue to increased vulnerability to infection, slowness to heal and slowness of physical, mental and sexual development. Hormonal imbalances and impairment of brain function, in conditions such as dyslexia, have also been attributed to zinc deficiency.
Overdose
Zinc is not very toxic, and undesirable side effects are unlikely, even at fairly high levels. The main negative is that zinc has an impact on absorption of copper, so it is sensible to include a copper supplement alongside the zinc.
Benefits
Zinc forms part of some 200 different enzymes, which work to metabolise energy, form bone tissue, heal wounds, manufacture proteins, control the metabolism of carbohydrate and neutralise dangerous free radicals. It is vital to the immune system, increasing resistance to disease. Without zinc, the body cannot use the vitamin A in the diet: it is important to the proper functioning of the eye.
Supplements of zinc are used in the treatment of a range of conditions: heart disease, acne, stomach ulcers and arthritis. In combination with vitamins A, B6, C and E it is helpful for allergic reactions. In cancer patients, it can help limit the growth of tumours, and it is now also being used to treat age-related macular degeneration; a cause of visual impairment and blindness in the elderly.
RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance)
The RDA is 15mg, and 20 - 27mg for pregnant and breast-feeding women.
